Spatial conditions for car dependency in urban areas

A reduced role for cars in urban mobility is a recurring issue in the debates about the future of our cities. However, in the post-war era the spatial structure of European cities has been adapted to widespread car use and ownership. The question arises in what measure spatial conditions have made Europeans car dependent. Of special interest are mid-sized urban areas, as most people live there. This leads to the question: How does the spatial context shape conditions for car dependency? I define car dependency as having no alternative for the car in reaching daily destinations, such as amenities and workplaces.
My findings show that not density, but accessibility of destinations determines the car dependency of the population. It seems that within the moderate densities of mid-sized urban areas the bicycle and the e-bicycle seem appropriate in accessing daily destinations, more than walking or forms of public transport, which often lacks the frequency and service levels of bigger cities. However, through ongoing specialization workplaces located beyond e- bicycle distance may become more common, especially in mid-sized regions. In these cases the added value of the bike-train-walk option seems modest, mainly caused by the low percentage of workplaces situated near stations.
The car seems in all areas unavoidable for incidental trips, such as a dedicated trip to the hardware store or having a social or recreational purpose in places not well accessible by alternative modes. Overall, my research shows that this is not necessarily the case for many daily recurring, utilitarian trips.