Trafficking, Enslavement, and Gendered Violence Experiences of Nigerian Irregular Migrants in Conflict-Affected Libya

This article examines the nexus between trafficking and enslavement experienced by Nigerian irregular migrants in conflict-affected Libya, drawing on qualitative research conducted in the Reintegrate study. Based on in-depth interviews with 69 return migrants comprising 47 women and 22 men, as well as 27 key stakeholders, the study analyses how initial smuggling arrangements evolve into trafficking and enslavement in a context shaped by armed conflict, governance collapse, and structural violence. Drawing on structural violence frameworks, the continuum of violence, and Agamben’s concept of the zone of exception, the article shows that exploitation in Libya is not the product of individual criminal behaviour but the predictable outcome of intersecting structural conditions. While both male and female migrants experienced severe physical violence and forced labour, women faced an additional, systematic layer of sexual violence structurally embedded in, rather than incidental to, the exploitation economy. The article further argues that victims often resist the trafficking label, reflecting complex negotiations between aspiration, shame, and social expectation that have significant implications for identification and support. It concludes by outlining the implications for survivor-centred accountability and prevention-oriented migration governance