Modes of citizens' participation: associations between and determinants of social, civic, and political participation in cross-national perspective

Citizens participate in various spheres of society. In this chapter we focus on social, civic, and political participation. Social participation takes place in the informal sphere and encompasses all social contacts and informal help relations with relatives, friends, and neighbors. Civic participation occurs in associational life, by being a member of, participating actively in, doing voluntary work for, and/or donate money to voluntary associations like sports clubs, trade unions, and human right organizations. Political participation covers all modes of participation that aim to influence the policy process and its outcomes, like campaigning, contacting politicians, and protesting (Verba et al. 1978).