The economic and cultural dimensions of unequal policy representation

Many scholars have argued that policymaking in Western democracies is biased toward high-income citizens, thereby violating fundamental ideals of political equality. However, studies have paid less attention to other potential sources of unequal representation besides income. In this study, we compare the role of income with that of education. Using an original data set of policy changes and public preferences spanning 43 countries, we find that both produce unequal policy representation. We also find some support for the hypothesis that income and education provide distinct advantages and primarily affect economic and socio-cultural policy, respectively. At the same time, educational inequalities are larger and more robust, producing a bias toward cosmopolitan socio-cultural policy. These findings underline the importance of separating the economic and cultural sources of unequal representation. In addition, they reinforce the role of education as a key dividing line in the politics of established democracies.